Description
There is a good deal of debate as to how large ancient warships worked; the principles are understood, but the details are not always so clear. A Roman 'quadreme' or Greek 'tetreres' would seem to have four rows of oars if the name is translated literally. However, it is unclear how four sets of oars each with one rower apiece could be used without them getting in a terrible tangle even with a magnificently trained crew, or how the top set of rowers would be able to handle the extremely long oars pitched at a steep angle and still produce any power. The chances are that the term 'oar' had become synonymous with 'rower' and that the lowest bank had more than one man per oar. The other option was to go back to a double row of oars, with two men apiece. Two banks of oars would also have made for a cheaper construction task for each ship. Either way, the result was a ship that could rival the lighter trireme in speed, yet had more deck space for a large fighting contingent or artillery pieces.
Throughout the civilised world, levies formed the backbone of many armies. Called to service from among citizens or subjects, levies followed a long tradition that began, in Greece at least, with hoplite warfare between the city-states. Equipped with spears, these levied phalanxes could present a formidable wall of spear points to other infantry and cavalry. What levies lacked in skill and discipline compared to professional soldiers and mercenaries they made up for in numbers and the advantage their weaponry provided. These troops, especially the citizen-levy of the Greek city-states, were at first expected to provide their own arms and equipment. As time passed the citizen army developed into a more formalised body in which arms and equipment were provided. Often, however, personal loyalty to a general or king replaced any sense of civic duty, although 'civic duty' might be grudging to say the least in men taken from their homes, families and livelihoods, and thrust into battle.
